Country Hazard Profiles
ANGUILLA
The major disaster issues facing Anguilla are hurricanes, tropical storms and flood. The low-lying topography and centrifugal drainage pattern of the numerous sinkholes increases the risk of Anguilla to high wind and flood damage. Several areas of the coast are also prone to coastal erosion and landslides.
After hurricane Donna hit in 1960, there has been an increase in concrete housing. During the last decade Anguilla has suffered infrastructure and economic losses as a result of hurricanes. Most of the damage was as a result of storm surge and flooding. Hurricanes Luis (1995) and Lenny (1999) resulted in extensive flooding in areas such as The Valley and The Bottom. Some areas of The Valley had more than 10 feet of water that took days to recede. Structural damage to homes was minimal, since the majority of Anguillan houses are concrete houses with flat roofs and narrow eaves.
ANTIGUA & BARBUDA
The islands of Antigua and Barbuda are at risk from hurricanes, earthquakes, flash floods and periods of drought.
Recent hurricanes which have affected the island were Hugo in 1989, Luis and Marilyn in 1995, Georges in 1998 and Jose and Lenny in 1999. Hugo did not impact the islands directly but nevertheless left significant damage. Hurricane Luis was far more destructive and damaged 46 out of 71 schools. Georges left two people dead and damaged approximately 1700 homes, leaving more than 3000 people homeless. José once again brought destruction to the islands, killing one person and leaving 500 people homeless.
The most recent earthquake to hit Antigua was in 1974. No major floods have yet occurred on the islands, yet interference with natural water courses has caused flash floods. Periods of drought occur regularly, the most serious being those of 1995 and 1983-1984 during which the country's agricultural sector encountered great losses and water had to be imported from Dominica. There are no known volcanoes on the islands, yet they lie in close proximity to Guadeloupe, Dominica and Montserrat. Ash from Montserrat's active Soufriere Hill Volcano has reached the islands on at least one occasion.
THE BAHAMAS
Major hazards affecting The Bahamas are coastal inundation due storm surges and localized flooding which are often associated with tropical storms and hurricanes; hurricane-force winds; contamination of aquifers and the threat of sea level rise. Hurricane winds are known to damage buildings and infrastructure of the built environment. Contamination of aquifers is a serious concern for Bahamians. This can come about due to the movement of sewage, pesticides and seawater into the soil and aquifers as a result of localized flooding and storm surges. Coastal flooding of low-lying areas, unrelated to the passage of a tropical storm or hurricane, can also occur from a combination of high winds, spring tides and coastal bathymetry, especially around tidal creeks and sounds. Another concern is anticipated sea level rise that makes the coastal zone particularly vulnerable to beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine life, loss of fresh water aquifers, and damage to coastal infrastructure. Oil spills in coastal waters and in ports are hazards that the country is likely to face.
The most recent severe hurricanes to impact on the Bahamas include Hurricane Andrew in 1992, Hurricane Floyd in 1999, Hurricane Michelle in 2001 and Hurricanes Frances and Jeanne in 2004. Hurricane Francis was particularly devastating in that it was the first since 1886 to impact the entire archipelago. Because of its slow motion and very large eye of roughly 140 kilometres in diameter, the centre of circulation stayed over the northwestern part of the country for three days. Two people were killed and around 700 were displaced. Significant property damage occurred throughout the country, destroying houses and sea walls, and damaging infrastructure, the water supply, electricity and telecommunications systems. Hurricane Jeanne struck less than three weeks later, only adding to the damage of the already weakened homes and infrastructure. Around 2500 people were evacuated to emergency shelters, and no deaths or injuries occurred.
BARBADOS
Barbados is brushed by tropical storms, hurricanes and tropical depressions frequently. Most recently, hurricane Lili damaged over 300 houses in September 2002 and Ivan killed one person and damaged over 300 buildings in September 2004. The most devastating hurricane of the past century was Janet in 1955, which killed 35 people, destroyed more than 8000 homes and left around 20,000 people homeless. The secondary effects of Hurricanes and tropical storms, however, such as wind damage, inland flooding, landslides and coastal surge are still of concern.
Other natural hazards to threaten Barbados are flooding, landslides, drought and soil erosion. The active submarine volcano Kick 'em Jenny, located at 260 km southwest of the island, poses a threat of tsunamis.
The island is also prone to manmade hazards such as hazardous waste. Illegal solid waste disposal threatens to contaminate aquifers. The pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships is an issue. Oil spills are considered to be a major threat because of the importance of the environment to tourism and the economy.
The Caribbean Uniform Building Code is currently used as the national model. A specific national code is being designed and a Barbados Building Authority is being set up in order to monitor and enforce the code.
Some hazard mapping has been conducted, yet updating remains a challenge. Vulnerability and capacity assessments have been done for shelters, police stations, fire stations and hospitals. As for early warning, the Caribbean Meteorology and Hydrology Institute (CMHI) located in Barbados serves as a weather systems monitor and flood gauges have been established in those areas at risk.
BELIZE
Belize, situated on the east coast of Central America, is affected by hurricanes, tidal waves, floods, landslides, fire disasters and wind damage.
Hurricanes have had the most devastating effect on Belize. Belizeans have experienced damage due to high winds and storm surges. Statistics gathered have shown that the coastal towns and areas of Belize are extremely exposed. Flooding manifests itself as flash floods in the upper reaches. In the lower catchment areas, flooding is caused by ponding. Here, water levels remain elevated for long periods such as two to three weeks. Data has shown that flooding occurred due to tropical depressions, hurricanes, or cold fronts. The coastal areas are especially exposed. As the land is drained by relatively fast-moving rivers, flash floods often occur. The second largest barrier reef in the world covers the entire coastline, engendering storm surges due to the shallow bay.
Fire disasters have occurred mainly within the urban centers and in forested areas. Belize City holds the top spot for the number of fires in the community. In this area, houses are tightly packed and made of timber. There are also the issues of low water pressure and an inadequate distribution of fire hydrants. Additionally, fires are started when butane spills during the refilling process when tankers deliver butane on a house-to-house basis. The proximity of Belize to the boundary of three tectonic plates makes it prone to seismic hazards. Volcanic eruptions in Mexico and Guatemala have had some minor effects on Belize due to ash fall. In addition, the country is affected by landslides.
The most recent hurricanes to affect the country were Keith in 2000, causing three deaths and major damage, and hurricanes Chantal and Iris in 2001, with the latter causing 22 deaths due to a capsized boat. Hurricane Mitch of 1998 did not affect Belize directly, but did cause severe rains and floods in the coastal areas. An Emergency Operation Centre was established in Belize City to evacuate more than 75,000 people rom the city and the coastal islands to temporary shelters in Belmopan.
BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS
The BVI is exposed to both natural and manmade hazards. Hurricanes and earthquakes are the natural hazards that are considered to be the greatest threat. The effects of hurricanes and tropical storms such as wind damage, inland flooding and coastal surge are of significant concern. Hurricane Hugo severely affected the BVI in September 1989. Losses were estimated to be US$40 million and 30% of the country’s housing stock was destroyed.
Seismic research indicates that the northeastern Caribbean has the potential to experience an earthquake of between 7.5 to 8.5 magnitudes. Earthquakes of this magnitude occurred during the 19th century. More recently, the Leeward Islands experienced an earthquake of 7.5 magnitude on 8th October 1974.
The islands are also prone to manmade hazards such as exposure to hazardous chemicals, explosions and transportation accidents. Oil spills are considered to be the greatest manmade threat to BVI.
Some of the major hurricanes of the last two decades were Klaus in 1984, which was highly destructive with damages of over $150 million, Hugo in 1989 and Louis and Marilyn in 1995. The latter three were all category 4 hurricanes. In 1999, hurricane Lenny was especially destructive and was subsequently followed by an assessment report focusing on lessons learned and recommendations on topics such as safe construction.
Under the component of mitigation and planning, assessments of various hazards are made to provide the public sector with the ability to develop appropriate mitigation strategies.
CAYMAN ISLANDS
The islands are mainly at risk of hurricanes and earthquakes, both of which occurred recently.
In September 2004, Hurricane Ivan pounded Grand Cayman. A national disaster was declared, two people were killed, virtually the entire population was directly affected and a large number of buildings were severely damaged. The total amount of damage and losses is estimated at around 183 % of gross domestic product. Ivan was particularly devastating because it moved slowly over the flat and therefore highly exposed land. Storm surges flooded large sections of the coast. Other recent hurricanes which have impacted the island, be it much less than Ivan, were Michelle in 2001, Gilbert in 1988 and Katrina in 1981.
Only three months after Hurricane Ivan, an earthquake measuring 6.7 on the Richter scale hit Grand Cayman on the 14th of December 2004. It was reported to be the strongest earthquake since 1900. Further tremors have occurred since then, with a quake registering 4.4 on the 20th of December 2004. No major damage occurred in either of the quakes.
COMMONWEALTH OF DOMINICA
Dominica is part of a volcanically and tectonically active ridge formed along the subduction zone in the Eastern Caribbean. The island has eleven potentially active volcanic centres, one of the highest concentrations in the world and is therefore affected by volcanic, geothermal and seismic activity. Southern Dominica is at a high risk of future magmatic eruptions from Morne Anglais, Morne Plat Pays and Morne Micotrin that would generate pyroclastic flows and surges, ash falls, and lahars. The majority of on-land earthquakes are shallow, and the 1998 volcanic swarms were mainly related to the Play Pays volcanic complex -Morne Anglais centre in southern Dominica. Geothermal activity is associated with a very active area that includes the Valley of Desolation, Boiling Lake and the Eastern and Western Hot Springs. An estimated 90% of the population lives within five kilometers of a live volcano. (Seismic Research Unit 2000)
Between 1886-1996, Dominica experienced 59 storms, of which 40 were tropical storms and 19 were hurricanes between Category 1 –3 on the Saffir/Simpson scale. The island experienced 13 years in which there were multiple storms in one year (CDMP, 1996). Storm surges, floods and landslides often accompany these events.
Coastal erosion, along its 148 km of coastline, is a continuous threat to property and communication networks, along with anticipated sea level rise that make the coastal zone particularly vulnerable to beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine life, loss of fresh water aquifers, and damage to coastal infrastructure.
Volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes, storm surges, floods, landslides and coastal erosion are potential disaster issues facing the country, given the fact that the majority of the population lives on a narrow coastal plain.
August 1979, Hurricane David resulted in 38 deaths in Dominica; 3000 were treated for injuries. There was also substantial defoliation of the islands forests. The impact was just as dramatic on homes, utilities and agriculture. 1999 brought Hurricane Lenny where sustained damage and rehabilitation costs were estimated at US$140 million.
In 2004 an Earthquake measuring 6.0 on the Richter scale, caused damage estimated at US$19.1 million and affected19,527 persons. The impact was exacerbated by heavy rainfall from a tropical wave that resulted in land slippage further complicating the relief effort as several villages could only be reached by air transport for several days.
GRENADA
Volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, storm surges, floods, landslides and coastal erosion are potential disaster issues facing Grenada, given the fact that the majority of the population lives mainly on the coast.
Grenada is part of a volcanically and tectonically active ridge formed along the Lesser Antillean island arc system. The island has only one potentially active volcanic centre, Mount St. Catherine, with most of the geothermal activity being associated with it. Lava flows and domes, pyroclastic flows and falls, and crater lakes indicate past volcanic activity. Mount St Catherine has had unusual episodes of rumblings in the 1980s and late 1990s.
Grenada is also threatened by the presence of a submarine volcano, Kick 'em Jenny, located 9km North of Grenada, at 12º 10.8’ N, 61º 22.8’ W; lying at about 5 miles north of the village of Sauteurs. It is said to be the only ‘live’ submarine volcano in the Eastern Caribbean, having erupted about 12 times since 1939, when it began to be observed. The volcano is about 1300m high, and recent research in March 2003 has put the summit at about 180m below the surface of the sea and the depth to the vent at 268m. As the vent of the volcano approaches the surface of the sea, the threat of tsunamis also increases. It is one of the most active volcanoes in the region posing a direct threat to commercial shipping and pleasure boats. It is expected to generate hazardous tsunamis during future eruptions. A monitoring system has been set up at Sauteurs and gauges have been installed on the Sisters Islands which lie at around 3 miles from the crater.
Storm surges, floods and landslides often accompany storms and hurricanes. The storm surge produced by Hurricane Lenny in 1999 caused extensive damage to infrastructure along the west coast of the island and to Carriacou and Petit Martinique.
Coastal erosion, along its 121km of coastline, is a continuous threat to property and communication networks, along with anticipated sea level rise that make the coastal zone particularly vulnerable to beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine life, loss of fresh water aquifers, and damage to coastal infrastructure.
Hurricane Janet of 1955 had been the last memorable hurricane, and history recounted Great Floods only in 1921 and 1938. On September 7, 2004, however, Grenada was taken by surprise by Hurricane Ivan. 37 people died, 90% of buildings and infrastructure were destroyed and 50% of the population became homeless. Water, power supply and telecommunication systems were struck down, and the backbone of the country's economy (tourism and agriculture) will take years to recover. As the destruction greatly outweighed the national coping capacity, a large international relief and rehabilitation programme was launched.
The recent disaster has had a significant impact on the hazard situation of the islands. Many forested areas were destroyed, adding to the already emerging problem of desertification. Apart from hurricanes, another significant risk is that of earthquakes and volcanic activity. Hazard mappings and assessments have been done for volcanic eruptions, floods, landslides, coastal erosion and storms. A national GIS database for hazard risks is being developed.
GUYANA
The major hazards which affect Guyana are flooding, drought, and industrial hazards. The country is prone to both coastal and riverine flooding. Drought is a recurrent feature of the environment because of the El Nino factor. Deforestation is occurring along the coast and in the inland regions. The processes used to exploit mineral resources such as bauxite and gold contributes to deforestation, flooding and environmental pollution.
The low-lying nature of the coast makes it prone to flooding in the rainy season. Areas are also prone to flash flooding. The removal of mangrove swamps and over-harvesting of inland forests have worsened flooding. Deforestation has led to soil erosion and the contamination of waterways. Coastal erosion also contributes to the risk of flooding and has resulted in salt-water intrusion into agricultural lands in some areas.
Poor practices in the bauxite and gold mining industries contribute to environmental degradation. These industries contribute to deforestation, soil erosion, air and water pollution. The waste disposal from mining activities that use chemicals such as mercury and cyanide in the recovery processes is a major concern. For example, in 1995 a cyanide spill at Omai Gold Mines affected 23,000 people. Air pollution is also a concern in industrial areas such as Linden where it has been linked to respiratory disorders.
Guyana is also prone for the effects of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). In the warm phase (El Niño) Guyana experiences reduced rainfall while in the cold phase (La Niña) the country experiences increased rainfall, usually for months. The El Niño of 1997/98 has been blamed for the severely drought experienced by the Country. This has led water conservation measures.
JAMAICA
Jamaica is prone to a number of natural hazards. The island is located within the hurricane belt and has experienced many hurricanes. Jamaica has also a history of seismic activity. Major earthquakes affected Montego Bay and Kingston in 1958, and Kingston in1993. Kingston, the most densely populated area is also the most active seismic zone. Landslides have resulted in deaths and disrupted major transportation networks. The island has experienced periodic drought with the most recent occurrences being in 1994 and 2000. In 2000 drought resulted in estimated losses of Jam$250 million in crops and livestock.
Jamaica is also at risk to man made hazards including oil spills and fires. Environmental issues include deforestation and environmental pollution. Jamaica has experienced heavy rates of deforestation. Coastal waters are polluted by industrial waste and sewage and some damage to coral reefs has been noted. .Air pollution in Kingston from vehicle emissions is also an environmental issue.
The two most recent major hurricanes were Gilbert, a Category 3 storm, in 1988, caused 45 deaths and affected 500,000 persons; and Hurricane Ivan, Category 4, in September 2004. The eye of Hurricane Ivan past 30 miles south of Jamaica, therefore significantly reducing the anticipated impact on the country and its capital Kingston. Preparedness measures evacuated up to 150,000 people from potential danger zones. Nevertheless, 14 people were killed and communities, infrastructure, the environment and the agricultural sector were severely affected. In some communities, running water was hardly available for a period of up to two months. At the end of October 2004, the Jamaican government created the Office of National Reconstruction (ONR).
Floods can occur at any time, but are most often associated with hurricanes or tropical depressions. Low-lying plains as well as closed limestone valleys are most at risk. Flood rains often trigger landslides. Droughts are a regular occurrence, especially on the South Coast where there is very little rainfall and agriculture depends on pumped water.
The two largest earthquakes on record took place in 1692 and 1907. Earthquake activity is being monitored by a series of seismographs and accelerographs which are operated by the Earthquake Unit of the University of the West Indies at Mona.
MONTSERRAT
The major disaster issue facing Montserrat is volcanic activity. The island has been and continues to be devastated by it. However, the island is also at risk to hurricanes and earthquake activity. Wind and storm surge associated with hurricanes are of major concern. Areas in the safe zone with slopes steeper than 60 degrees would be most at risk. Little Bay, the site of the new port is prone to storm surge. Seismically, it has been determined that the eastern Caribbean is “ripe for a major earthquake”. In terms of a “multi-hazard” event the Integrated Vulnerability Assessment of Montserrat suggests that heavy rainfall associated with a hurricane or tropical storm could trigger a volcanic dome collapse and an eruption.
Over the past decade, the island of Montserrat has come to be identified with a major disaster risk: the volcanic activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano. After having been dormant for more than 400 years, this volcano first erupted on July 18, 1995, following a three-year period of precursor seismic activity. Earthquakes have occurred on several occasions during the last century (during the 1890s, the 1930s and the 1960s) and they have generally been interpreted as failed eruptions. The last decade, however, seems to have initiated a whole new period of activity.
Montserrat is also at risk to technological hazards, which include oil spills, environmental health, and low altitude aircraft operations. Oil spillage can occur at connection points in Cades Bay. Environmental health, particularly in relation to ash falls, is of great concern. The main aquifers are located in the south of the island, therefore protection of the northern aquifers are critical to the development of Montserrat. The airport facility planned for Geralds has no provision for fuel and landing will be by navigational aid rather than instrument.
ST. KITTS & NEVIS
The twin island state of Saint Kitts and Nevis is susceptible to hurricanes, earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, wind, and storm surge coastal erosion. The period 1995 to 1999 has been particularly challenging with Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn in 1995, Hurricane Georges in 1998, severe flash flood in 1998 and Hurricanes Jose and Lenny in 1999. These events have caused serious social and economic disruption.
Hurricanes are considered to be the major issue facing the country. This perception is due to the severe damage caused by hurricanes on the island over the last decade. Hurricane Georges, a category 3 storm struck St. Kitts on the 20-22nd September 1998. The hurricane caused severe damage to the island’s infrastructure and the economy. In St. Kitts and Nevis, the hurricane affected 85 % of the housing stock, most schools and the general hospital and the Long Point Port.
Flooding is a major issue especially within the capital of Basseterre. Basseterre is prone to flash flooding which has caused extensive damage to the port area.
The most recent flooding of Basseterre occurred along the College Ghaut system on Sunday 29th November 1998. The danger from flash flooding is increased because of the practice of locating development and roads along the “ghauts”. In this regard, the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) in St. Kitts has stressed the need for use of early warning systems.
Coastal erosion and slope instability are of great concern. In the past, tropical storms and hurricanes have damaged major arterials along the coast and resulted in the isolation of sections of the island. Old Road was severely damaged by Hurricane Lenny in 1999. In the New Guinea area, Brimstone Hill Road has had to be rerouted because of coastal erosion.
It is interesting to note that although both St. Kitts and Nevis are volcanic islands each with a live volcano, this risk does not seem to be of a high priority. The island of Nevis is subject to earthquakes: the perception is that these are few and far between and that the risk is manageable.
Hurricanes and wind damage specifically, are generally considered to be the major issues facing Nevis. This perception is probably due to the severe damage caused by hurricanes on the island over the last decade.
SAINT LUCIA
Saint Lucia is confronted with a variety of natural hazards, the most critical of which are hurricanes, inland flooding, storm surges, coastal flooding and erosion, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and wildland fires. Coastal erosion is a continuous threat to property and communication networks, along with anticipated sea level rise that make the coastal zone particularly vulnerable to beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine life, loss of fresh water aquifers, and damage to coastal infrastructure. In combination with a high population density and resource-intensive development, this creates a relatively high incidence and risk of natural and technological hazards.
Saint Lucia is part of a volcanically active ridge formed along the subduction zone in the Eastern Caribbean. As a result, the island is affected by volcanic and seismic activity. The landscape carries evidence of volcanic activity, namely lava domes, volcanic necks/plugs or ‘pitons’, explosion craters, pyroclastic flows and surges, and lahars. The potentially active centre is the Soufrière Volcanic Centre, found in the southwest of the island. The Sulphur Springs geothermal field form part of the Soufrière Volcanic Centre.
The strongest seismic activity experienced in Saint Lucia was felt in 1953 and measured 7.5 on the Richter scale. Seismic hazard-tsunamis or seismic induced sea waves also pose a serious risk. The island experienced at least five swarms of shallow earthquakes over the last hundred years, occurring in 1906, 1986, 1990, 1999, and 2000 (Seismic Research Unit, 2002).
Hurricanes are the most likely and most destructive hazards to impact the island. With the explosive increase in the number of buildings, many of them on stilts, on hillsides and high slopes, as well as subsequent removal of stabilising vegetation, this makes some communities especially vulnerable to accompanying high winds and sometimes heavy rainfall which may cause land slippage.
Inland flooding is also significant. The island's steep topography, nonporous rock base, clayey soils and ever-increasing development of roads and other impermeable surfaces exacerbate the run-off from heavy rains and limit the percolation of rainwater. Furthermore, while an adequate drainage system one-time existed, the urban development of the past two decades has eliminated or altered many of the drainage ditches. Loss of natural vegetation also contributes to increased run-off and flooding, as does increased construction close to riverbanks.
The most damaging recent disaster was The Tropical Wave of October 26, 1996, which caused serious damage in the village on Anse la Raye and the town of Soufriére. The losses have been estimated to be more than EC$230 million. Tropical storm Debbie of September 9, 1994, has also had a serious impact not only on the island itself, but also on its awareness of disaster risk and its commitment to prevention. Hurricanes occur frequently, damaging the marine and coastal community and especially the livelihoods of the fishing communities.
ST. VINCENT & THE GRENADINES
St Vincent and the Grenadines is a multi island state consisting of the main -and largest- island of St Vincent and 31 smaller islands and cays. St Vincent is entirely volcanic, with its highest peak being Soufrière volcano at 1234m. Volcanoes, earthquakes, hurricanes, storm surges, floods, landslides and coastal erosion are potential disaster issues facing the country.
St. Vincent and the Grenadines is part of a volcanically active ridge formed along the subduction zone in the Eastern Caribbean. There have been five major eruptions of the Soufrière volcano recorded since European settlement. The volcano is active and poses a serious threat to the inhabitants of the island. As a result, the island is affected by volcanic and seismic activity. The landscape carries evidence of volcanic activity, namely lava domes, volcanic necks/plugs or ‘pitons’, explosion craters, pyroclastic flows and surges, and lahars. The pyroclastic flows and ash fall give the beaches of the island of St. Vincent their black colour. This volcano erupted in 1902, laying waste to a third of the island and killing more than 1000 people. The last eruption, which was far less destructive, occurred in 1979. The volcano continues to be a threat to the island.
Over the past 20 years, the country fortunately has not been hit by a direct hurricane, but it has experienced the damaging effects of storm surges, floods and landslides which often accompany these events. Coastal erosion is a continuous threat to property and communication networks, along with anticipated sea level rise that make the coastal zone particularly vulnerable to beach erosion, loss of habitat for marine life, loss of fresh water aquifers, and damage to coastal infrastructure.
The most recent storms and hurricanes were hurricane Lenny in 1999, leaving minor damage, tropical storm Lili in 2002, causing loss of life and extensive damage, and hurricane Ivan in 2004, seriously affecting housing and banana crops.
Periods of drought are also part of the country's hazard profile. A severe drought occurred in 2001.
TRINIDAD & TOBAGO
Trinidad and Tobago faces a number of natural disaster issues. The location of the islands in the extreme south of the Caribbean means that there is very little risk from hurricanes. In fact, Trinidad has never been hit by a major hurricane and Tobago has only experienced two since 1963. However, the islands are subject to tropical storms and the associated heavy rainfalls resulting in flooding and landslides. The islands are both prone to occasional and generally moderate earthquakes.
Increased built development has created a number of issues. The clearing of hillsides has contributed to run-off and flooding. Air pollution within Port of Spain caused by the burning of garbage in the city dump is a major environmental issue. Malfunctioning sewerage disposal plants are contaminating coastal waters.
Agricultural activities have also created potential disaster issues for the country. Deforestation and in particular illegal logging has resulted in soil erosion and pollution of waterways. The clearing and burning of hillsides for agriculture has contributed to increased rates of soil erosion and flooding. The use of agricultural chemicals is polluting aquifers.
In 1997 Tobago experienced an earthquake which caused extensive damage; in Trinidad in October 2000 (measuring 5.8 on the Richter scale) and in Tobago in December 2004 (measuring between 5.0 and 5.4 on the Richter scale).
Trinidad has a significant amount of industrial development and is at risk to a range of industrial hazards. These hazards include water and air pollution from industrial waste or accidental emissions. The risk is greatest in the areas surrounding industrial estates such as the Couva Point Lisas Industrial Estate. Oil pollution of beaches from oilrigs off the east coast has been an environmental concern for a number of years. Poor quarrying practices have contributed to the destruction of forested areas and the contamination of rivers.
Tobago had only experienced two hurricanes since 1963, and had never been seriously affected. In September 2004, however, hurricane Ivan caused widespread damage. Populations in the low-lying coastal areas of Tobago had to be evacuated to shelters. In November 2004, two people were killed and five were wounded in a landslide after six hours of heavy rain. The clearing and burning of hillsides has shown an increase in soil erosion, floods and landslides.
TURKS AND CAICOS
The Turks and Caicos Islands are made up of 40 islands, 8 of which are inhabited. As they are relatively low lying, with its highest point Blue Hills at only 49 m, they are very vulnerable to hurricanes and floods.
The major hazard faced by the Turks and Caicos Islands (TCI) is hurricanes. The islands are located within the hurricane belt and their low lying nature make them very vulnerable to the effects of hurricanes and tropical storms such as wind damage, inland flooding and coastal surge. The islands also have to address the issue of overuse of natural resources. Growth in tourism, sports fishing, scuba diving and boating are endangering coral reefs and the seafood industry.
The most damaging hurricane of the last century occurred in 1908 and killed around 20 people. More recently, hurricane Kate in 1985 and tropical storm Erin in 1995 caused wind damage and flooding. In 2004, hurricane Frances caused only minimal damage with hundreds of islanders fleeing to higher ground. This recent hurricane, however, clearly showed the need for greater public awareness on risk reduction and personal safety. The authorities and police had great difficulty convincing residents to move to shelters.
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